CRISPR: Good or Bad?

    Diseases such as cancer, arthritis, diabetes, and so many more have caused pain and struggles that so many have to endure when they are faced with one of these diseases. Today, scientists have now made strides towards a future without any of these diseases through a technology called CRISPR. CRISPR stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, which is simply repetitive DNA sequences in bacteria that allow scientists to cut out certain sections of DNA that may be mutated and replace them with a new DNA sequence aiming to reverse or fix what the previous DNA sequence was causing (Harvey 2014). How exactly does CRISPR work? As mentioned previously, CRISPR is made up of repetitive DNA sequences in bacteria. This bacteria, once it has infected a body, can transcribe its DNA elements to RNA. Once converted to RNA, it guides a nuclease to the specific DNA sequence to cut (Jax.com 2020). 

The possibilities of CRISPR seem to be endless, as we may be able to change any part of our genome ultimately changing ourselves forever. Currently, human clinical studies are already being run on the effects of CRISPR for cancer therapy and for editing retinal cells to rid the human body of leber’s congenital amaurosis 10 (Jax.com 2020). 

Although these clinical trials give hope to those with a chronic disease that someday soon there may be a solution for riding their bodies of that certain disease, there are limitations and ethical issues that arise with CRISPR. For example, changing the genome of a person alters their body forever and also changes the DNA of future generations. The ethical dilemma is if it is morally correct to in some ways “play God” and change the DNA of generations to come. Secondly, CRISPR is also able to edit the genomes of gametes affecting the embryo and future generations. Lastly, CRISPR is not yet 100% accurate and any changes to the genome will be permanent and may cause serious problems if it were to cut the wrong sequence of DNA 

Science and technology are more advanced than ever and it is only becoming better. Although CRISPR has been revolutionary in offering a solution for so many of the world’s diseases, scientist and society should be careful with the decisions that will soon be made on CRISPR (Shwartz 2018). Regulations on what CRISPR can specifically be used for need to be clearly written out as we do not want anyone to take advantage of this technology. The sky is the limit with CRISPR, but we need to have a clear and ethical approach, only helping those who truly are in need of this technology and not for those looking to enhance the human body. 

References: 

Harvey, Paul et al. “CRISPR: A Game-Changing Genetic Engineering Technique.” Science in the News, 31 July 2014, sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2014/crispr-a-game-changing-genetic-engineering-technique/.

Stanford Medicine. “CRISPR Is a Gene-Editing Tool That's Revolutionary, Though Not without Risk.” Stanford Medicine, 2018, stanmed.stanford.edu/2018winter/CRISPR-for-gene-editing-is-revolutionary-but-it-comes-with-risks.html.

“What Is CRISPR?” The Jackson Laboratory, www.jax.org/personalized-medicine/precision-medicine-and-you/what-is-crispr.

Caloric restriction for living longer

     

    Since a young age, the majority of us have been told to eat all of our food so that we could live long and healthy lives. Scientists have now found that this belief may not be completely true. It is important to first note that the theory of aging is still highly debated, with its two main theories being, an accumulation of free radicals which cause aging, and the rate of living theory which states that larger animals live longer than smaller animals due to slower metabolic rates. 

    Since a slower metabolic rate is thought to be correlated with a long life, it would make complete sense that a calorie deficit would increase lifespan. As a person reduces their food intake it will also reduce their metabolic rate. A decrease in the metabolic rate would then be correlated with a longer life. Looking at the second theory of aging, scientists have also found that multiple species are known to produce less free radical when in a calorie deficit which in turn may also delay aging in an organism. With that being said, no matter which theory is correct, we see that among rhesus monkeys restricting calories improves health and increases lifespan (Kumlien 2017). Although this was an incredible study that showed promising results, it is not the first study to suggest a caloric deficit. In 1935, Clive McCay, found that rats who had a severely restricted diets lived 33% longer than the expected life span (Grabski 2020). Lastly, scientist at the salk institute in California conducted a study with rats where a control group ate whatever they liked and the second group had a calorie deficit of 30%. This was maintained for 9 months which is the equivalent of 20 human years. Researchers concluded that 57% of age-related changes in the cells of normal rats were not seen in rats that were on a calorie deficit (Neuro 2020). 

    Although the majority of these studies have shown promising results, some scientists fear that a long-term caloric deficit could do more harm than good. One argument is that the control groups in the majority of these studies are allowed to eat as much as they want. Grabski argues that this may cause the control group to consume more calories than needed which in turn leads to weight gain and poorer overall health (Grabski 2020). 

    Research studies on caloric deficits are still fairly new and have not been examined enough to give a definitive answer. One limitation in this research is the ability to control the diets of human subjects as it may be much harder to control than in animals. Eating at a caloric deficit may show promising results but there may be better alternatives while the science is still being researched. 

References: 

“Calorie Restriction Lets Monkeys Live Long and Prosper.” News, 17 Jan. 2017, news.wisc.edu/calorie-restriction-lets-monkeys-live-long-and-prosper/.

FeaturedPsychology·October 22, 2020·2 min read, et al. “Eat Less, Live Longer.” Neuroscience News, 28 Feb. 2020, neurosciencenews.com/caloric-restriction-longevity-15812/.

Jan Wolitzky, et al. “Can Calorie Restriction Extend Your Lifespan?” Science in the News, 2 Aug. 2020, sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2020/can-calorie-restriction-extend-your-lifespan/.

Who’s to Blame? The Oocyte or the Spermatocyte?

 

Increased oxidative stress inhibit the electron transport chain leading to free radical build up in spermatocytes (Aitken et al., 2014). The sperm cell’s unique compartmentalization prevents apoptosis from occurring, but cannot offer complete protection from mutations (Aitken et al., 2014). Reactive oxygen species lead to DNA damage in spermatocytes, particularly in repair proteins (Aitken et al., 2014). The spermatocyte is uncappable of self-repair and is in need of the oocyte’s reparative abilities (Aitken et al., 2014). The mutated spermatocyte still remains capable of fertilization and if fertilization does occur the mechanisms of the oocyte are responsible for fixing this mutation prior to the first round of cell division (Aitken et al., 2014). If this mutation is not corrected the mutation will be past to the offspring (Aitken et al., 2014).

Aitken RJ, Smith TB, Jobling MS, Baker MA, De Iuliis GN. Oxidative stress and male reproductive health. Asian J Androl. 2014 Jan-Feb;16(1):31-8. doi: 10.4103/1008-682X.122203. PMID: 24369131; PMCID: PMC3901879.5.

Is Alexa Always Listening?

 We always joke about how the government is listening to every one of our conversations through our devices. What if it really is true? Is someone listening to our deepest desires and fears? Is someone feeding us products that we tell ourselves that we shouldn't buy? Is someone feeding us information and news that only support our personal views?

A few years ago, Amazon's Echo Dot became a popular product for consumers. According to Ford and Palmer, there are about 8 million Echo family devices sold since 2014 (Ford & Palmer, 2019). Its popularity came to be because the Amazon Alexa Voice (AVS) offers voice-activated services in devices, such as thermostats, security cameras, refrigerators, and even automobile systems. While it seems great at first, a lot of people began to question if there is an invasion of privacy and if these devices are worth the expense of convenience. Obviously, this is an ongoing ethical issue that needs to be addressed. In Ford and Palmer's study, they discovered that consumers can disable the microphone feature. However, it takes away the purpose of having an Echo Dot in the first place because you can't use Alexa's hands-free features, such as playing music or controlling the home features. In addition, they found that the Echo Dot does not have a voice training setting, but rather listens for "Alexa" (Ford & Palmer, 2019). It is very unclear on whether or not the device is only able to recognize this wake word, "Alexa," or records the audio 24/7. 

This also leads to another question about social media. I recently heard about the Netflix documentary, "The Social Dilemma." I have not seen it yet, but I heard that your phone knows everything about you, starting from what you like to shop for to your political views. It is terrifying how you have one conversation about your best friend's wishlist and having ads about those products pop up everywhere. 

References

Ford, M., Palmer, W. (2019). Alexa, Are You Listening to Me? An Analysis of Alexa Voice Service Network Traffic. Pers Ubiquit Comput 23, 67–79. https://doi-org.dml.regis.edu/10.1007/s00779-018-1174-x.

Penicillin Allergy - The Root of the Cause

A recent study published this year reported they may have found a connection between penicillin allergies and a vulnerability on the HLA-B gene. This information is particularly useful, as approximately 10% of people report having an allergic reaction to penicillin to varying degrees. Symptoms can include rash, breathing difficulty, and abnormal heart rhythms. The immune system gene in question - HLA-B - is a major histocompatibility complex gene that aids in detecting self from foreign entities. HLA-B mutations have also been associated with adverse reactions to the HIV/AIDS drug abacavir and allopurinol used to treat gout. 

The study in question reviewed over 600,000 electronic health records that included genetic data with self-reported penicillin allergies.  The specific variant, HLA-B*55:01, was found on chromosome 6. They then cross-referenced over 1.1 million people of European ancestry in the 23andMe (that's a soapbox for another day lol) and found the same genetic connection. Other ethnicities were evaluated, but a similar mutation was not found in the small population sample sizes. 

Further research will need to evaluate data from ethnic minorities and verify actual penicillin allergies versus misreported allergies.  One posed issue regarded the distinction between verified penicillin allergies and reported.  Many people either have or have been told they had a childhood penicillin allergy that was either misreported or no longer an allergy.  This affects clinical decision-making, as less appropriate antibiotics may be prescribed in lieu of first generation antibiotics. Increased medication costs could potentially burden patients when they could safely take a lower cost antibiotic. 

Krebs, K., Bovijn, J., Zheng, N., Lepamets, M., Censin, J. C., Jürgenson, T., Särg, D., Abner, E., Laisk, T., Luo, Y., Skotte, L., Geller, F., Feenstra, B., Wang, W., Auton, A., 23andMe Research Team, Raychaudhuri, S., Esko, T., Metspalu, A., Laur, S., … Fadista, J. (2020). Genome-wide Study Identifies Association between HLA-B∗55:01 and Self-Reported Penicillin Allergy. American journal of human genetics, 107(4), 612–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.08.008

Gummy Bears and Muscle Recovery

One of the most popular candies that we have, gummy bears, may not only satisfy someone’s sweet tooth. Gummy bears have the potential to be considered high-quality carbohydrates that can help with muscle recovery (Kanter 2017). Many athletes have always looked at which foods and supplements could give them the edge in any sport, today we focus much of that attention on nutrition. The focus on nutrition has brought scientists to think about the fastest ways to replenish our bodies of the glycogen that is depleted when taking part in any form of exercise. Replenishing this glycogen storages immediately would then allow our body to focus on the muscle recovery and repair after an intense workout. Gummy bears are made up of a simple sugar known as dextrose. Eating gummy bears as a post-work out supplement would allow our bodies to quickly replenish the glycogen that was used during the work-out, this is because dextrose is just another name for glucose, which would mean that our body does not need to break down the ingredients within the gummy bear and can use them immediately. 

Dr. Ziengenfuss from the Pinnacle Institute of Health and Human Performance, found that ingesting carbohydrates postexercise can increase muscle protein synthesis by 350% (Ziengenfuss 2004). Although these results may be promising we do see some studies that have found this not to be as beneficial as it may seem. In one study, Dr. Juha Hulmi, tested the effects of protein with or without carbohydrates after a workout. The study found that there was a significant difference in abdominal fat loss, showing that the group ingesting only protein had increased abdominal fat loss when compared to the group ingesting a combination of protein and carbohydrates. However, the study found no significant difference in muscle growth or protein synthesis in either of the two groups. 

In conclusion, it may be beneficial to consume high quality carbohydrates to increase protein synthesis after a workout, yet it should be taken with a grain of salt. 

References: 

Hulmi, Juha J., et al. “The Effects of Whey Protein with or without Carbohydrates on Resistance Training Adaptations.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, vol. 12, no. 1, 2015, doi:10.1186/s12970-015-0109-4.

Kanter, Mitch. “High-Quality Carbohydrates and Physical Performance.” Nutrition Today, vol. 53, no. 1, 2018, pp. 35–39., doi:10.1097/nt.0000000000000238.

Ziegenfuss, Tim N. “Postworkout Carbohydrate and Protein Supplementation.” Strength and Conditioning Journal, vol. 26, no. 3, 2004, pp. 43–44., doi:10.1519/00126548-200406000-00012.

Coffee addictions are real!